Annual Regulatory Requirements, Current Practice

Information about both clients and staff must be kept secure and confidential. Specific staff should be designated to ensure this, and any staff member working in the presence of client information must know how to maintain and secure protected information. This is not the job of medical records staff; it is everyone’s duty.

Let’s face it; you simply cannot talk about patient rights without serving up a side of HIPAA. The Joint Commission, CMS, and a plethora of state and federal agencies require all healthcare staff from pathologist to plumber be regularly versed on relevant aspects of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA).

The HIPAA privacy rule is a federal regulation that was designed to address public concerns about managed care, insurance availability, and insurance affordability. However, this course only addresses the privacy, confidentiality, and security aspects of the legislation.

The rule sets standards for patient privacy and confidentiality. It also sets severe civil and criminal penalties for people who violate a patient’s privacy. In order to comply with HIPAA, protected patient information must only be shared with people who are directly involved in that patient’s care. This is especially important when talking in public areas (elevators, restrooms, hallways, cafeterias, etc.). Charts or documents should not be left out where they might be seen by unauthorized persons; computer screens should not be angled in such a way as to allow unwanted viewing. It is vitally important to observe surroundings when discussing patient care.

The privacy rule standards address the use and disclosure of individuals’ health information called “protected health information.” All facilities must limit access to protected health information only to those who have a need to know. A nurse who seeks information about a patient not under his/her care is violating the HIPAA rules. Protected health information can only be used for health purposes. Employers cannot use health history information to screen candidates for hire or promotion. Financial institutions may not use it to determine lending practices. Only the individual can explicitly authorize employers, banks, and individuals to have access to his/her medical information.

HIPAA also established the “minimum necessary rule,” which stipulates that only the minimum necessary information may be shared, even with the patient authorization. A classic example would involve treatment for a case of child or domestic abuse; the professional would, rather than providing an entire medical record, share the pertinent data furnished in the form of an abstract, outlining the information that is necessary to provide treatment and protect the victim. The abstracted information could be provided to legal and law enforcement entities.

Health professionals who are directly involved in the treatment of patients are not subject to the minimum necessary rule and can have full access to all information that is needed to provide care. Health information that has implications for public health and safety can be shared without consent. There are several situations where medical information can be shared:

• Emergency 911 situations
• When communicable diseases are involved
• When law enforcement agencies participate
• If national defense or security is a factor

The public health department is deemed a legitimate recipient of certain personal health information, and professionals may, in fact, in some instances, must report certain findings to the proper public health agency. Included are the cause of death even when the patient dies at home, reportable communicable diseases, child abuse, reporting an adverse drug reaction to the Federal Drug Administration, occurrence of cancer in a state with a cancer registry, meningitis, and immunizations for children.

HIPAA privacy regulations also mandate specific patient rights that include the following:

• Right to privacy notice requires disclosure and reasonable effort to ensure that the patient understands the agency’s policy concerning privacy of information.
• Right to request restrictions - patients may specify health information that cannot be released and/or they may restrict to whom information can be released.
• Right to access of personal health information - patients must be allowed to inspect and copy information contained in the agency’s record.
• Right to know what disclosures have been made - the agency must track all information released and be able to provide documentation to the patient.
• Right to amend the personal health information - while patients may request amendments and the agency must allow amendments, the agency may deny some requests.

Electronically generated, stored, or transferred information also falls firmly under HIPAA privacy rules. Both individuals and facilities are responsible for defending electronic protected health information (ePHI).

Protected information that does get shared, either by accident or with purpose, must immediately be reported using the facilities established procedures. Depending on the extent of the information breach, the federal agency overseeing HIPAA accountability and/or local media may need to be notified.

Several regulatory agencies require annual training regarding the ability of clients to access emergency care; this is especially important to CMS. The right to care is reflected in the 1986 Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act (EMTALA) and ensures the public has access to emergency services regardless of lack of insurance or ability to pay.

EMTALA is often called the anti-dumping law and was passed as part of the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1986 (COBRA). Insurance companies are now obligated to use a standard definition for the need for emergency room (ER) services. This definition uses the concept of a prudent layperson. Under this definition, a person has a need for ER services if he or she has signs or symptoms that a reasonable non-medical person would consider an emergency.

If the client has severe pain, an injury, or a sudden illness that convinces him/her that their health is in serious jeopardy, they have the right to receive screening and stabilization emergency services whenever and wherever needed without prior authorization or financial penalty. The client has the right to request transfer to another institution, providing it is medically permissible, and the other facility will accept the transfer.

Under EMTALA, a hospital must screen all incoming clients. The screening must be complete enough to find out whether that person has an emergency medical condition. The medical screening exam must be performed by a physician or qualified individual who is designated by the facility to provide the medical screening exam.

Please note all training involving EMTALA must clearly state that a triage exam does not constitute a medical screening exam.

If the client does not have an emergency condition, the hospital has no further obligation under EMTALA. If the client does have an emergency condition, the hospital must provide stabilizing treatment. This treatment must be provided without considering the client’s ability to pay. Before the client is stabilized, the hospital may transfer the client out only if another facility is better equipped to treat the client and their condition. A hospital may not transfer an unstable client for purely economic reasons.

Clients in healthcare facilities have the right to accurate and easily understandable information about their health plan, healthcare professionals, and the facility itself. Should English not be their primary language, or they have physical or mental disabilities, then appropriate information must be provided in a manner that allows them to make informed healthcare decisions.

Clients have the right to know about the facility itself. This information can cover a wide topic range such as:

• How to file a complaint
• The facility’s position on withholding and withdrawing life-sustaining care and treatment
• Experience with specific procedures and services
• Accreditation status, quality, and consumer satisfaction ratings – Note: this information is already available through the internet
• Their healthcare team – who is responsible for their care – names and professional status, team members education and board certification status, years of practice, experience, quality, and consumer satisfaction ratings
• Their rights and responsibilities as clients. Remember they must understand the information they are given about their rights

While auditing agencies understand that each facility will have its own methods for making sure clients know and understand their rights, regulatory agencies require proof that facilities are indeed providing this information to clients. Inspection of expectations comes both by undertaking direct observation and examination of facility policies or records.

Most facilities display information on client rights at intake points to the facility. Many also provide clients with a written form of rights at intake during the admission process in client handbooks. Rights and responsibilities may also be posted in waiting areas; be aware; however, a written list of rights is not enough. The facility must make sure that all clients understand their rights well enough to exercise them. In fact, this is true of all information. All information must be presented so that the person can understand it. This means that clients may need special help if they do not speak English, cannot see or hear well, or have other mental or physical barriers to understanding. Examples of special help include:

• Translation services
• Sign-language interpreters
• Social workers or case managers
• Large print or Braille materials
• Magnifying glass or large print documents

Clients have the right to participate in decisions about their care and to set the course of their treatment. This means that they must be given accurate information. They have the right to know their diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment options. Healthcare providers must discuss all treatment options with their clients, which includes the option of no treatment. Further, they need to know the risks, benefits and potential medical consequences for each treatment option.

Clients have the right to considerate, respectful, nondiscriminatory, and compassionate care from doctors, health plan representatives, and other healthcare professionals. Respect means valuing the clients’ needs, desires, feelings, and ideas. Treat clients with common courtesy. For example: knock and wait before entering a client’s room; respond politely to clients; listen to clients; and remain compassionate. Clients have the right to fair and equal healthcare services, regardless of:

• National origin
• Political affiliation
• Level of education
• Place of residence or business
• Marital status
• Personal appearance
• Mental or physical disability
• Sexual orientation
• Genetic information
• Source of payment

Consumers of health services have the right to question, complain about, file grievances, or appeal decisions made concerning their health care. CMS, TJC, and many state and federal agencies request and require healthcare professionals to be trained on this subject annually.

Every client has the right to a fair, fast, and objective review of any complaint that they have concerning the health plan, doctors, hospital, or other healthcare personnel. This includes complaints about waiting times, operating hours, the conduct of healthcare personnel, and the adequacy of healthcare facilities. Many facilities have a client care representative to deal specifically with complaints or grievances. Many client complaints can be addressed quickly. For example, if a client complains about getting the wrong items on her lunch tray, make sure she gets the right items next time. The sooner the issue is resolved at the lowest level possible, the better client compliance and satisfaction with the healthcare provider. The client may need to have access to the ethics committee for issues regarding his/her care. They should expect that issues related to end-of-life care be treated with respect and sensitivity. The client should be able to examine and receive an explanation of his/her bill regardless of the source of payment.

More than 50% of the clients who sue do so because of miscommunications, anger, and lack of information between physicians, hospital staff, and clients/families. Grievance management is everyone’s responsibility. Handling grievances effectively from the start benefits everyone involved, helps keep small grievances from becoming big ones, and reduces the risk of liability. When complaints cannot be resolved quickly and easily, clients have the right to file a grievance. A grievance is a formal written or verbal complaint. If a client wants to file a grievance, the healthcare professional must:

• Explain the grievance process at the facility. This includes the name of the staff person the client should contact for the assistance of with resolution of their grievance.
• Explain that grievances may be filed with state agencies. This is true whether or not the client has already used the facility’s internal grievance process.
• Give the client the phone number and address for filing a grievance with the state.

Healthcare facilities must review, investigate, and resolve all grievances within a reasonable period. If the grievance has to do with the client’s safety, it should be reviewed immediately. Examples include grievances about abuse or neglect. To complete the grievance process, the facility must give the client a written report. This report should explain how the facility investigated the grievance and the facility’s decision about the grievance.

Did you know that The Joint Commission is one of five hospital and health services accrediting agencies accepted by CMS for the United States; The Joint Commission (TJC), Healthcare Facilities Accreditation Program (HFAP), Accreditation Association for Hospitals Health Systems Inc. (AAHHS), the Center for Improvement in Healthcare Quality (CIHQ) and Det Norske Veritas Healthcare Inc. (DNV). TJC is the big dog, providing oversight for more than 5000 hospitals and 10,000 other types of healthcare facilities. All accreditors serve the same function of inspection and accreditation of quality in health facilities so as to assure CMS that the health care provided meets or exceeds conditions of payment for services participation set by the federal government. This allows the approved health provider to receive payments and other monies from Medicare and Medicaid.

Please remember that although accrediting organizations serve a vital link between tax dollars and health care, these organizations are not part of the federal government. They are independent contractors serving the function of assuring federal and state authorities and in turn, private insurers and citizens, that each healthcare facility they accredit provides a high level of quality care. The process of approval is often referred to as the health services provider gaining a “deemed” status, as in deemed worthy to receive payments. For the purpose of this course, we will focus on The Joint Commission annual training requirements due to TJC’s size, standing, close working relationship with CMS, and the history of comprehensive observation and inspection of its expectations.

The Joint Commission national patient safety goals provide a clear map of which areas will be the target of interest and inspection during accreditation surveys or inquiries. Be certain to address the topics found in the TJC safety goals in your annual training.

By the way, communication between health professionals and accrediting bodies is meant to flow both ways. Should you have concerns about client safety or quality of care, both CMS and Joint Commission have avenues of communication open to hear your concerns.

All clients should be screened for abuse. Facilities must have procedures for identifying, reporting and treating victims of abuse. Clients have the right to expect access to protective services in the case of abuse.

Abuse can take many forms. It may include emotional abuse, economic abuse, sexual abuse, threats, using the threat of removing children, using privilege, intimidation, isolation, and other behaviors used to maintain fear, intimidation, and power. There are many theories as to why some people are abusers. However, the reason abusers use this behavior is that violence is an effective method for gaining and keeping control over another person.

Sexual abuse is an unwanted sexual activity with perpetrators using force, making threats or taking advantage of victims not able to give consent. Most victims and perpetrators know each other. Immediate reactions to sexual abuse include shock, fear or disbelief. Long-term symptoms include anxiety, fear or post-traumatic stress disorder. While efforts to treat sex offenders remain unpromising, psychological interventions for survivors, especially group therapy, appear effective.

Psychological abuse occurs when a person tries to control information available to another person with the intent to manipulate that person’s sense of reality or their view of what is acceptable and unacceptable. Psychological abuse often contains strong emotionally manipulative content and threats designed to force the victim to comply with the abuser’s wishes and can include constant verbal abuse, harassment, excessive possessiveness, isolating the person from friends and family, deprivation of physical and economic resources, and destruction of personal property.

Physical abuse is physical force or violence that results in bodily injury, pain, or impairment. It includes assault, battery, and inappropriate restraint. It often begins with what is excused as trivial contact that escalates into more frequent and serious attacks.

Child abuse and neglect are at a minimum, any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation; and an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm. Physical abuse is the use of physical force that may result in bodily injury, physical pain, or impairment. Physical abuse may include acts of violence like striking, hitting, beating, pushing, shoving, shaking, slapping, kicking, pinching, and burning. This abuse may not have been intended to hurt the child, but an injury may have resulted from over-discipline or physical punishment. Neglect is the failure to provide for the child’s basic needs.

Child abuse or neglect is defined by the child welfare branch of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) as:

• Any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation; or
• An act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm.

Any suspicion of abuse involving minors requires consideration of cultural values and standards of care as well as recognition that the failure to provide the necessities of life may be related to poverty.

Elder abuse can take many forms. It also may include physical, emotional, psychological, sexual abuse, neglect, abandonment, or financial and material exploitation. With the frail elderly, neglect is a major problem. Neglect is the refusal or failure to fulfill any part of a person's obligations or duties to an elderly person. Most laws concerning elder abuse are state laws and can be found in a variety of state legal codes such as criminal, probate, welfare, business, and professional codes. Please be aware of your own states’ regulations and guidelines.

Many victims of abuse are seen in healthcare settings. Healthcare professionals often fail to identify victims because there is a lack of training on what to look for and how to ask about abuse. Opportunities for intervention are missed, and victims continue to suffer the adverse health consequences of physical and emotional abuse. For example, physically battered victims seek assistance in healthcare settings, often repeatedly.

Staff should question whether abuse might have occurred if a client’s explanation of the injury does not match the actual injury. For example, a child’s x-rays may show an unexplained broken bone.

Screening for abuse must be done. The healthcare professional should document abuse in the medical record; safeguard evidence; provide medical advice, referrals, and safety planning; and show empathy with compassion. Each facility must maintain a list of private and public community agencies that provide help for abuse victims. Staff should make appropriate referrals for victims.

Screening questions should always be asked in a private room, away from the suspected batterer, and preceded by assurances of all the confidentiality allowed by law. Healthcare professionals should find ways to separate the client from the possible abuser if the abuser demands to accompany the potential abuse victim into the examining room.

Sometimes clients need to be kept safe from their own actions. While we always encourage individuals to exercise internal control, at times, there may be a need for external measures of restraint. The decision to use physical or chemical restraints is a medical decision. Restraints must never be used for the purpose of discipline or convenience. When a client requires external restraint, it is important to protect that person’s safety, rights, comfort, and dignity.

Review the equipment, policies, and documentation tools for each facility where you practice, as there may be some variation in both practice and definition of restraints. Restraint standards for medical/surgical purposes apply when the primary reason for use directly supports medical healing. Please note that slightly different standards are used for behavioral management, such as in a psychiatric setting and long-term care (TJC, 2019b).

Behavioral use of restraints is a last-used option and should be considered only when a client is imminently at risk of harming themselves or others with their behaviors. Less intrusive methods of regaining safety must be attempted before restraint is applied.

Medication to control behavior should be used only as part of a therapeutic plan, after appropriate assessment by professionals. Chemical restraint is a term used to describe the use of medications for purposes unrelated to the client’s medical condition. An example is the use of a sedating psychotropic drug to manage or control behavior.

It is the intended use of a device or method that classifies the device or method as a restraint. For instance, IV arm-boards, postural support devices, orthopedic appliances, protective devices like helmets, are not restraints when used to promote healing or protect an easily injured tissue or surgical site.

Restraints or seclusion are to be used as a last resort after alternatives have proven to be unsuccessful. Restraints should not cause harm or be used as a form of punishment. Examples of alternatives to restraints include, but are not limited to:

• Interaction on 1:1 basis with staff
• Redirection
• PRN medication with client consent
• Staff or client-initiated time out in a quiet room with the door unlocked. It should be presented as a way for a client to regain control, not as a threat
• Staff presentation of limits where consequences are presented for client to choose
• Removal of stimuli from the client or vice versa. Keep in mind that moving a client close to a busy nurses' station so you can keep a close eye on him/her could over stimulate and worsen symptoms
• Relaxation exercises
• Calming music
• Distraction tactics

If lesser interventions are not successful, and you need to apply a physical restraint as a last resort, use the least-restrictive device possible. For example, a lap buddy is a soft vinyl device that attaches to the wheelchair rather than the client. Although the client can remove it when they are oriented, it serves as a reminder that he/she should not get up without assistance and protects in the event that he/she becomes confused again. Another alternative is a geriatric chair set in a reclining position or with a lapboard. This is less restrictive than a safety belt or roll belt. And a roll belt, in turn, is less restrictive than a vest restraint. Mitts are generally more suitable than wrist restraints because they are less restrictive and allow the client to move their arms freely. Another option is elbow restraints that keep the arm straight but allow free arm movement.

A licensed, independent practitioner must order the restraint or seclusion; however, the facility may authorize qualified staff members, usually registered nurses, to initiate the use of restraints when needed before an order is obtained. The independent practitioner must evaluate the need for restraint or seclusion and assess the client within 1 hour.

The authorized staff member can discontinue restraints or seclusion as soon as the assessment reveals that restraints or seclusion are no longer necessary. The use of restraints for acute medical or surgical purposes must be reviewed and renewed if needed by the licensed, independent practitioner at least every 24 hours. The use of restraints for behavioral healthcare purposes in long term care must be reviewed and renewed if needed by the licensed, independent practitioner at least every 30 days.

A high falls risk is not an acceptable reason to use restraints. The following are suggestions to reduce falls risk:

• Check the client at least every hour.
• Remind the client to call for assistance if he/she wants to visit the bathroom.
• Use low beds or put the mattress on the floor for high-risk clients who will not call for assistance to get up.
• Arrange furniture so that it does not block the walkways.
• Use a nightlight and keep debris and liquids off the floor.
• Keep the client's personal items, water pitchers, and call light within reach at all times.
• Make sure the client wears his/her eyeglasses, hearing aid, or other assistive devices.
• Ask family or friends to stay with him/her at night or at other times when he/she tries to climb out of bed.

CDC reports identify the risk of violence to healthcare workers being much higher than for all other private sector industries. The documentation clearly shows that 50 percent of healthcare professionals have been and will be victims of assault in the workplace (Moore & Plaff, 2019). The circumstances of hospital violence differ from workplace violence in other settings such as banks, convenience stores, or taxicabs, where violence most often relates to robbery. Violence in hospitals is usually an outpouring of emotion rather than an attempt at a material gain. With the violence toward others resulting from clients or their family members who feel frustrated, vulnerable, and out of control. Common risk factors for hospital violence include the following:

• Working directly with volatile people, especially if they are under the influence of drugs or alcohol or have a history of violence or certain psychotic diagnoses
• Working when understaffed-especially during meal times and visiting hours
• Transporting clients
• Long waits for service
• Overcrowded, uncomfortable waiting rooms
• Working alone
• Poor environmental design
• Inadequate security
• Lack of staff training and policies for preventing and managing crises with potentially volatile patients
• Drug and alcohol abuse
• Access to firearms
• Unrestricted movement of the public
• Poorly lit corridors, rooms, parking lots, and other areas

Violence may occur anywhere in a hospital, but it is most frequent in psychiatric wards, emergency rooms, waiting rooms, and geriatric units. Studies indicate that violence often takes place during times of high activity, and during interaction with clients. Assaults may occur when service is denied when a client is involuntarily admitted, or when a healthcare worker attempts to set limits on eating, drinking, tobacco, or alcohol use. Clients with the condition that causes confusion and impaired judgment are more likely to become violent than a client with normal mentation. Confusion and impaired judgment may be caused by neurologic conditions, seizures, hypoglycemia, or dementia. Watch for signals that may be associated with impending violence:

• Verbally expressed anger and frustration
• Body language such as threatening gestures
• Signs of drug or alcohol use

Also, it is important to note how your co-workers behave. If a colleague’s demeanor or behavior has changed for the worse, notify your manager. For example, slamming equipment around is red-flag behavior.

Learn from history. If a client has a history of violent behavior (such as acting combative in the ambulance or waiting room), prepare yourself for potentially violent behavior and warn others who are caring for him/her. Let security know if you feel threatened or if you find or suspect that he’s carrying a weapon. Notify the supervisor if you suspect a client is going to be violent. Help relieve the client’s tension and anxiety by keeping him informed about when he’ll be examined or treated and what’s going on.

Be alert to your environment:

• Evaluate each situation for potential violence when you enter a room or begin to relate to a patient or visitor.
• Be vigilant throughout the encounter.
• Do not isolate yourself with a potentially violent person.
• Plan your exit. Always keep an open path for exiting. Do not let the potentially violent person stand between you and the door.
• When you’re with an upset client or co-worker, avoid areas of the room that lacks an accessible exit.
• If you’re going to an isolated part of your facility, let others know where you’re going and when you expect to return.
• Consider asking for an escort.
• Note anyone who’s not wearing staff ID and is lingering where he/she shouldn’t. Politely ask if you can help them and notify security if you aren’t satisfied with the answer. If you’d rather not approach someone, call security and provide a full description.
• Evaluate the way you wear equipment to be sure it cannot be used as a weapon against you. For example, consider that a stethoscope or ID badge without a breakaway necklace can be used to choke you. Carry your stethoscope in a pocket and use an ID badge necklace that has a breakaway feature.
• If you wear a necktie, opt for a clip-on style.
• If your hair is long, wear it in a way that’s not easy to pull, and do not wear dangling jewelry.

In the presence of a potentially violent person:

Do

• Plan a clear exit route.
• Keep 5 to 7 feet between you and him. Never turn your back on him or let him get between you and the exit.
• Keep your voice calm and quiet.
• Acknowledge that he has a right to his feelings.
• Assume that he has a valid concern and address it.
• Try to meet reasonable demands.
• Offer alternatives when possible. For example, tell an angry patient that although he cannot order take-out pizza, you’ll see if you can get him an early dinner. Tell an angry colleague that you see that she’s angry and that you’d like to work with her and your manager to resolve the situation.
• Call for backup or security if a situation grows increasingly tense.
• Ensure access to bathrooms, a phone, TV, and something to read.
• Track equipment. Return it to its rightful place. When you take an item into a client’s room, dispose of it properly, or take it with you when you leave.

Take these steps if you cannot defuse the situation quickly:

• Remove yourself from the situation.
• Call security for help.
• Report any violent incidents to your management.

Do not

• Do not ignore the agitated person or avoid him.
• Do not threaten or demand obedience.
• Do not argue or become defensive or judgmental.
• Do not laugh, move suddenly, make threatening gestures, or invade his personal space.
• Do not try to handle a dangerous situation alone. Call security or initiate your facility’s violence prevention protocol.

In the presence of a weapon, maintain behavior that helps diffuse anger:

• Present a calm, caring attitude.
• Do not match the threats.
• Do not give orders.
• Acknowledge the person’s feelings (for example, “I know you are frustrated”).
• Avoid any behavior that may be interpreted as aggressive (for example, moving rapidly, getting too close, touching, or speaking loudly).

Let’s face it, something about the healthcare environment brings out the best and the worst in people and their behaviors. Sexual harassment is not acceptable and can lead to civil prosecution and/or disciplinary action up to termination. Sexual harassment includes unwelcome:

• Sexual advances
• Request for sexual favors
• Verbal, visual, or physical behavior of a sexual nature

State laws and requirements control the mandate for training concerning the prevention of sexual harassment in the workplace. Be assured that training will be required for ALL employees, on a frequency specific to your state laws. National oversite of sexual harassment policies and complaints is provided by the U.S. Office of Civil Rights, and they are proactive in exerting authority when incidents are reported (OCR, 2019).

Sexual harassment becomes unlawful when it becomes a condition of employment, of advancement, unreasonably interferes with work performance, or creates an intimidating, hostile, or offensive work environment.

Work environments vary, and people have varying levels of sensitivity. The worker has a responsibility to inform the people involved that they must stop because he/she/they are offended or feels sexually harassed. If the behavior continues, report it to your supervisor or the human resources department. Do not mistakenly think it will go away on its own. Like a lingering foul stench, harassment requires positive action in order to have it cease.

The primary sources of radiation exposure in a healthcare facility are x-rays and radionuclides used in diagnostic tests and therapy. Areas, where radiation is used, are marked with the international tri-foil symbol.

GHS Chemical Hazard Symbol – Radiation (OSHA, 2019)
Ionizing Radiation	Non-Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing Radiation = Concentrated energy waves that destabilize atoms such as x-rays, tomography, angioplasty, fluoroscopy, and nuclear medicine. Ionizing radiation poses a risk of tissue damage and other health risks. Damage can accrue with repeated exposures. Non-Ionizing Radiation = Energy waves composed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields such as ultraviolet (UV), infrared (IR), microwave (MW), radio frequency (RF), and extremely low frequency (ELF). Non-ionizing radiation can pose the danger of tissue destruction and health risk if not properly controlled.
More information on radiation and its hazards can be obtained from OSHA here.

Remember, portable x-ray machines may be found tucked in closets, storage rooms, at the side hall of emergency or critical care units, or many other unmarked areas.

During exposure to radiation, you should limit your time as much as possible, move at least six to ten feet from the source, and wear leaded shields. If your job requires routine exposure, you should wear a monitoring device to measure your exposure. When working with radioactive material, wash your hands thoroughly and dispose of trash in the appropriate manner. Do not eat, drink, smoke, or apply products to your skin in an area where radioactive material is being used.

For most health professionals and virtually every organization in the health industry, the major regulatory authorities expecting targeted annual training are TJC, CMS, and OSHA. Let’s take a look at training topics that focus on safety in the workplace from the perspective of those organizations’ expectations.

Training on fire safety is not only required by the major regulatory agencies; it is common sense. Any health professional who has lived through a fire in a care setting knows and most likely has night terrors about the complexity of moving ill clients out of harm’s way in an emergency.

In healthcare, we are all expected to render assistance during situations that place our clients at risk. We, therefore, all require a working understanding of fire response, small fire suppression, and tactics to slow the spread of larger fires. A fire brigade designation such as found in OSHA regulations does not pertain to every health worker, but rather to those who have received additional instruction on fire suppression and rescue. If you have the floor or unit staff designated as “safety officers” or “fire wardens” please review the OSHA Fire Brigade definitions to make sure they receive correct training before an inspection or cross your fingers before you are called on to perform in an actual emergency.

For all of us, when you enter a new work area, look around and find fire alarms, fire extinguishers, exit signs, and oxygen cut off valves. One way to remember fire safety is the acronym, RACE.

• R: rescue
• A: alarm
• C: contain the fire (if possible)
• E: extinguish or evacuate

Never hesitate to sound the alarm with any suspicion of fire, yet also never “yell fire.” Yelling “fire” creates panic. Instead, call out the facility's verbal code for fire. Call the switchboard to report the fire and pull the fire alarm. When you call the switchboard, be sure to stay on the phone long enough to ensure they have received the correct information such, where you are!

If a fire is small and confined, you may be able to extinguish it. If a client’s garments are on fire, wrap them tightly in a large blanket to extinguish the flames. If a piece of equipment catches fire, pull the plug, or cut the electricity as soon as possible.

OSHA is very clear if you place hand-held portable fire extinguishers for staff to use in emergencies, you must train every staff annually how to use them. Portable fire extinguishers come in different classes for use on fires of different sources. The extinguisher has small pictures on the label that help you identify the type of fire source material they should be used on. Class A puts out fires involving ordinary combustibles. Class B extinguishers smother fires involving flammable liquids or gases. Class C extinguishers put out fires in or near electrical equipment. Type ABC extinguishers can be used to fight all three types of fires. To use an extinguisher, remember PASS:

• Pull the pin
• Aim the nozzle at the base of the fire
• Squeeze the trigger while making
• Sweeping strokes with the extinguisher plume

If a fire cannot be extinguished and smoke, fumes or flames threaten client safety, you may need to evacuate. Evacuate ambulatory clients first. Stay calm and give clear directions. Evacuate horizontally for as long as you can. Then evaluate vertically down to a lower level. Never use an elevator to escape during a fire. A sudden loss of power could leave you and your client trapped inside the elevator.

Healthcare units are required to be separated by heavy fire doors that close automatically when the alarm is sounded, to keep the fire from spreading. To confine a fire, close the doors, windows, and all vertical openings like the laundry chute. Stuff wet towels under doors to keep smoke out. Shut off oxygen supplies if directed to do so. Usually, facility policy designates someone in supervision to decide when to turn of oxygen supplies.

When rescuing anyone in immediate danger, remember to stay low. Smoke rises to the ceiling and forms a heavy, dense cloud that slowly descends. This cloud is deadly because it contains toxic gases.

Staff responsible for inspecting, maintaining, or repairing fixed fire extinguishing equipment such as sprinklers or fire hose reels must be trained annually concerning these essential safety items.

Katrina, Joplin Missouri, the Twin Towers; the list of disasters affecting hospitals, all of us in the health professions, are limitless due to the fact that emergencies come to us, either physically or by proxy in the form of waves of injured.

Joint Commission requests and requires annual training for emergency responses specific to healthcare facilities, including twice-yearly live emergency scenarios (e.g., bomb threat, hostage situation, facility fire, plane crash into the building, etc.). At least one of these annual training must involve the community around the organization, such as fire department, search, and rescue, police, etc. Be aware that TJC requires an assigned designee at these exercises to monitor performance and document deficiencies, with staff training following up to correct anything found lacking. Don’t be tempted to take emergency response training lightly; not only will it be “graded” by regulatory agencies, but it could also very well save the lives of those precious to you.

Supervisors, you must know how to initiate the disaster plan and designate tasks to workers.

Each worker must be trained to:

• Locate the disaster plan on each unit where he/she works
• Know the alarm codes for each type of disaster
• Know the exit routes
• Know how to use any evacuation equipment

As of January 1, 2016, the Joint Commission began expecting ongoing training on the purpose and correct operation of medical device alarm systems. This is now an expectation for every health care professional who uses in any device that possesses alarms.

Nearly every medical device possesses an audible or visual alarm these days, and the wild cacophony that is heard, and often ignored, in health settings is a cause of “alarm fatigue” to both the public and to regulatory agencies. Knowing when to set the alarm, how to set it, how to respond to it in a timely manner are all matters requiring proper training and accountability (Gaines, 2019).

As health systems move further into the age of electronic health records and systems, expect digital monitoring of essential medical equipment. In other words, should equipment alarms sound consistently without being attended to, the marvelous mechanism of the Joint Commission Tracer System is likely to stumble upon and take notice. So, train appropriately, staff accordingly, work intelligently, or practice how to respond to accreditation surveyor queries.

Under the current Center for Disease Control (CDC) handwashing guidelines, washing hands with soap and water is to be done whenever the hands are visibly dirty. If not visibly soiled, rubbing hands with an alcohol hand rub is the primary means of hand hygiene for routinely decontaminating the hands during routine client care. Alcohol-based hand rubs increase compliance with hand hygiene because hand rubbing requires less time, results in less skin irritation, and does not require proximity to a sink. Hand hygiene is indicated before (Mennella & Kornusky, 2018):

• Client contact
• Donning gloves when inserting a central venous catheter (CVC)
• Inserting urinary catheters, peripheral vascular catheters, or other invasive devices that don’t require surgery

Hand hygiene is also indicated after:

• Contact with a client’s intact skin
• Contact with body fluids or excretions, non-intact skin, or wound dressings
• After removing gloves

Standard precautions are strategies for protecting healthcare workers from the occupational transmission of organisms. The premise is that all pre-existing client infections cannot be identified; therefore, barrier precautions should be used routinely to protect from all sources of potential infection. Standard precautions apply to blood, all body fluids, secretions, and excretions except sweat regardless of whether or not they contain visible blood, non-intact skin, and mucous membranes. Additional precautions are based on highly transmissible or epidemiologically important pathogens. Transmission Based Precautions (isolation) are airborne, droplet, and contact.

The appropriate use of personal protective equipment (PPE) is an important element of standard infection prevention precautions. Gloves provide a protective barrier between the client and the healthcare worker and prevent gross contamination of the hands. Gloves do not replace the need for handwashing because gloves may have small defects, may be torn during use, and hands may become contaminated during glove removal.

Masks, goggles, or face shields should be used to protect the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, and mouth during situations where there is a likelihood of splashes or sprays. A surgical mask is worn by healthcare workers to provide protection against large-particle droplets during close client contact. When tuberculosis is known or suspected, healthcare workers should wear an N95 respirator, a high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filter respirator, or a powered air-purifying respirator (PAPR).

Gowns are worn to prevent contamination of clothing and protect the healthcare worker’s skin from blood and body fluid exposure. Impermeable gowns, leg coverings, boots, or shoe covers provide more protection when large quantities of blood or body fluids may be splashed. Gowns are also worn as a part of some transmission-based precautions. Mouthpieces, resuscitation bags, or other ventilation devices should be used instead of mouth-to-mouth resuscitation.

Needles should never be recapped, bent, broken, or removed from contaminated syringes. Sharps should be disposed of in a puncture-proof container and then transported to a reprocessing area. Improved engineering controls are among the most effective approaches to reducing occupational hazards and therefore are an important element for a needlestick prevention program. Such controls include eliminating the unnecessary use of needles and implementing devices with safety features. Most injuries from hollow bore needles can be prevented with the use of safer sharps devices, and a number of sources have identified the desirable characteristics of such safety devices. These characteristics include the following:

• The device has no needle.
• The safety feature is an integral part of the device.
• The device preferably works passively (i.e., it requires no activation by the user). If the user action is necessary, the safety feature should be engaged with a single-handed technique and allows the worker's hands to remain behind the exposed sharp.
• The user can easily tell whether the safety feature is activated.
• The safety feature cannot be deactivated and remains protective through disposal.
• The device performs reliably.
• The device is easy to use and practical.
• The device is safe and effective for client care.

Although each of these characteristics is desirable, some are not feasible, applicable, or available for certain healthcare situations. For example, needles will always be necessary where alternatives for skin penetration are not available. Also, a safety feature that requires activation by the user might be preferable to one that is passive in some cases. Each device must be considered on its own merit and, ultimately, on its ability to reduce workplace injuries. The desirable characteristics listed here should serve only as a guide for device design and selection.

Transmission based precautions and protective environment (PE) are terms used to describe protective measures that need to be employed for specific groups of clients. An older term for this was isolation. Clients requiring transmission-based precautions require a private room. Clients infected with the same organism can share a room. This is referred to as cohorting.

Central Line-Associated Bloodstream Infection (CLABSI), along with Surgical Site Infection (SSI) prevention are critical areas of concern. Annual training is a focus for any health care staff whose job duties place them in contact with central venous catheters (CVCs) or surgical wounds and dressings. CVCs play an important role in support of the client, allowing for the administration of intravenous fluids, medications, blood products, and parenteral nutrition, as well as providing hemodialysis access and hemodynamic monitoring. CVCs have also been identified as one of the most frequent causes of heath care related bloodstream infections. SSIs are estimated to account for 31% of all Hospital Acquired Infections (HAIs), leading to longer hospital stays (Boev & Diss, 2016). We must say estimated due to the lack of accurate, voluntary hospital reporting on SSIs. A trend that has not gone unnoticed and will inevitably lead to more regulations and oversight should healthcare organizations not be willingly forthcoming concerning important public safety issues.

In healthcare, it is everyone’s responsibility to dispose of biohazardous material properly. One negligent act can result in a biohazardous exposure. Biohazard materials include blood and body fluids. If you are in doubt, use a biohazard container to dispose of the material. All biohazardous containers should be red and have the following biohazard symbol.

Source: www.cdc.gov/niosh

Biohazard sharps containers are to be red and come in varied sizes. Biohazardous sharps containers are made to store small glass objects and anything capable of piercing or puncturing the skin, whether it is contaminated or not. This includes sharps with protective devices like retractable sheaths. Even if a sharp is not contaminated, if it is put in the regular garbage, someone may be stuck with that sharp and not know if it was contaminated or not. The typical examples are needles, sutures, scalpels, disposable instruments, and lancets. Replace sharps containers when they are three-quarters full. Failure to do so may result in someone being contaminated because sharps are close to the top, or the closure device does not swing freely.

Biohazardous bags are red and are to be used for biohazardous material that is not sharp and may be contaminated with blood or body fluid. These bags are also used for the disposal of chemotherapy drugs and chemicals, even though they are not infectious.

Source: www.cdc.gov/niosh

General waste bags are used for general trash and some body fluids and equipment if there is no visible blood: urine, feces, disposable pads or chux, PPE, used gloves, respiratory care items, and suctions canisters. However, if in doubt, use a biohazardous bag.

Healthcare worker vaccination is a hot button topic currently, so anticipate frequent training focused on this topic for years to come.

The CDC’s perspective is that health professionals are always at risk for exposure to serious, and sometimes deadly, diseases. Each of us works directly with clients or handle material that could spread infection. Due to these factors, each of us should be appropriately vaccinated to reduce the chance of catching or spreading vaccine-preventable diseases. The CDC hot list of healthcare worker vaccinations include:

OSHA possesses a comprehensive bloodborne pathogen standard for workers in areas of risk, which, of course, includes healthcare, housekeeping, and emergency responders, to name a few. As a healthcare professional be careful to take this topic seriously as some 295,000 hospital-based healthcare workers experience occupational, percutaneous injuries annually, according to reports from the International Health Care Worker Safety Center (Zehnder, 2015). Infectious organisms present in the blood which can cause serious or life-threatening disease in humans include hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

The presence of an exposure control plan is essential in a healthcare setting, and as a healthcare professional, you must know your facilities policies. The exposure control plan must describe how an employer will use a combination of engineering and work practice controls, ensure the use of personal protective clothing and equipment, provide training, medical surveillance, hepatitis B vaccinations, and signs/labels. Engineering controls are the primary means of eliminating or minimizing employee exposure and include the use of safer medical devices, such as needleless devices, shielded needle devices, and plastic capillary tubes.

Should a needlestick or exposure to blood occur: Provide immediate care to the exposure site.

• Wash wounds and skin with soap and water
• Flush mucous membranes with water
• Irrigate eyes with clean water, saline or sterile wash

Please note that no scientific evidence has shown that using antiseptics or squeezing the wound will reduce the risk of transmission of a bloodborne pathogen. Using a caustic agent such as bleach is not recommended.

A comprehensive exposure prevention plan and strategies play significant roles in decreasing the risk of infection from bloodborne pathogens. The risks of exposure with appropriate precautions are low, yet they are real. Understanding how exposure occurs and the risks of exposure is imperative for both the occupational health clinician and the healthcare worker. After an occupational exposure to a bloodborne pathogen, the risk of infection depends on a number of factors including:

• Type of body substance involved
• Route of exposure
• Volume of blood or body fluid involved
• Severity of exposure
• Pathogen suspected
• Degree of viremia (e.g., viral count or quantity of virus in the blood)
• Immune status of the healthcare worker at the time of exposure
• Whether appropriate post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) was used

Tuberculosis (TB) infects one-third of the world’s population, according to the World Health Organization (WHO). Active TB infections are very contagious, and several treatment-resistant strands of the bacteria are actively circulating globally. To avoid acquiring TB (Kerkar, 2017):

• Avoid spending long periods in stuffy, enclosed rooms with anyone who has active TB until that person has been on an effective course of medication for at least two weeks.
• Utilize protective masks when working with clients with active TB.

The CDC identifies three levels of TB infection control in health-care settings. The first level, administrative controls, should focus on minimizing the number of areas where exposure to Mycobacterium tuberculosis may occur. The second level, environmental controls, focuses on reducing the concentration of airborne TB particles. Because persons entering areas where infected clients may go, the third level of the hierarchy is the use of respiratory protective equipment in situations that pose a high risk for exposure.

Respiratory equipment for TB protection is only as good as the fit of the device and the training of the person wearing it. Particulate filter respirators certified by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) that can be used for protection against airborne TB include:

• Non-powered respirators with N95, N99, N100, R95, R99, R100, P95, P99, and P100 filters (including disposable respirators)
• Powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs) with high-efficiency filter

To be effective and reliable, the CDC and NIOSH have determined that respiratory protection programs must include at least the following elements:

• Assignment of responsibility to one person with sufficient knowledge who is given the authority and responsibility to manage all aspects of the program.
• Standard operating procedures that include information and guidance for the proper selection, use, and care of respirators.
• Screening by a physician or other licensed health-care professional of all healthcare workers (HCWs) who might need to use a respirator for pertinent medical conditions at the time they are hired, and then re-screening periodically.
• Annual training of HCWs with a specific focus on prevention, transmission, and symptoms.
• Selection of filtering facepiece respirators approved by CDC/NIOSH.
• Fit testing performed during the initial respiratory protection program training and periodically thereafter, in accordance with federal, state, and local regulations.
• Inspection and maintenance of respirators according to manufacturer instructions.
• Evaluation of the respirator program periodically to ensure its continued effectiveness.

The failure to routinely assess and document pain impedes change. The American Pain Society promotes the phrase, pain is the 5th vital sign, to increase the visibility of pain among healthcare professionals. Vital signs are taken seriously. For example, practitioners rarely fail to recognize and take action on elevated blood pressure. Blood pressure is routinely measured and recorded in the client’s chart, and standard practice holds that elevated blood pressure requires assessment and action. If pain intensity is assessed routinely with the same zeal as the traditional four vital signs (temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure) and then documented, pain management would improve. As the 5th vital sign, pain intensity becomes visible and can be used to guide treatment.

Basic pain assessment is simple, must be performed regularly, and action is planned based on client reports. It makes no difference whether the client is in the hospital, a long-term care facility, a behavioral health facility, an outpatient clinic, or being cared for by a home care agency. No matter where the client is, the intensity of pain should be assessed and documented:

1. During the initial evaluation of the client
2. After any known pain-producing procedure
3. With each new report of pain
4. At regular intervals when vital signs are taken
5. At suitable intervals after pharmacologic intervention (60 minutes after oral; 30 minutes after parenteral), or nonpharmacologic intervention to evaluate the current pain treatment plan.

The most widely used measure to assess intensity is the Numerical Rating Scale (NRS), where the client is asked to rate their pain from 0-to-10, with 0 equaling no pain and 10 equaling the worst possible pain they can imagine. Since we have no instrument to objectively measure pain intensity in the same way that blood pressure is measured by a sphygmomanometer, the only valid measure of pain is the client’s self-report (a subjective measure). Sometimes healthcare professionals may believe that they are the best judges of a person’s pain; however, many studies demonstrate that healthcare professionals either over-estimate or underestimate a client’s pain.

For clients who cannot respond verbally and/or rate their pain numerically, the Faces Pain Scale (FPS) for adults and children can be used. This scale consists of images of faces with various expressions (e.g., smiling, frowning, grimacing). The client selects the face that is consistent with his/her current level of pain.

If a client has cognitive/expressive deficits, observation of nonverbal expression and behavior or report of a family member or significant other needs to be considered when assessing pain intensity.

Each healthcare institution should use a pain intensity rating that will elicit a full assessment. Besides intensity, the complete pain assessment includes the following:

• Location of pain
• Character or Quality (throbbing, shooting, sharp, cramping, aching, burning, etc.)
• Onset, duration, variations, rhythms (is the pain better or worse at certain times, certain hours?)
• Alleviating factors - what makes the pain better
• Aggravating factors - what makes the pain worse
• Effects of pain (impact on daily life, function, sleep, appetite, relationships with others, mood, emotions, concentration, etc.)

Opioid analgesics are the cornerstone of pharmacological management for acute pain, especially when the pain is moderate or severe. Other agents, such as NSAIDs, may control mild to moderate pain or reduce opioid dose requirements for more severe pain. The intravenous (IV) route is the route of choice with acute pain only until oral intake is tolerated. Once the oral intake is tolerated, the route should be changed to oral. Intramuscular administration of medications is not recommended for the treatment of any type of pain. Absorption of medication is variable with the intramuscular route, and IM injections may hurt!

Medications are the cornerstone of the management of cancer pain because they are effective, relatively low risk, inexpensive, and usually, have a rapid onset. Three major classes of medications are used alone or, more commonly, in combination to manage cancer pain:

1. NSAIDs, ASA, and acetaminophen
2. Opioid analgesics
3. Adjuvant or co-analgesic medications

Adjuvant medications are those medications that are not usually thought of as analgesics but which, when given with known analgesics, have synergistic effects or exhibit analgesic activity of their own. Adjuvant nonopioid pain medications include:

• Antidepressants
• Anti-inflammatory
• Anticonvulsants
• Muscle relaxants
• Antihistamines

In the past, clients with chronic nonmalignant pain were excluded from long-term therapy with opioids for fear they would become addicted or psychologically dependent. Although often confused with addiction, tolerance and physical dependence are not equivalent to addiction. Physical dependence is just that; if the opioid is suddenly stopped or an antagonist medication such as naloxone is given, symptoms of withdrawal will occur. Tolerance is a decrease in one or more effects of the opioid, whether it is decreased analgesia, sedation, or respiratory depression. When tolerance to analgesia occurs, clients may need increased doses of opioids to achieve the same pain relief. Although most clients who take opioids several times daily for more than one month develop some degree of tolerance and physical dependence, the risk of addiction can be minimal – in some studies, less than one percent. Recent studies have shown that, along with other modalities, opioids might be a reasonable treatment addition for chronic pain in clients who are not terminally ill. Generally speaking, the oral route of administration is the optimal route for administration of medications for chronic pain (Asher, 2019).

Effective pharmacologic management of all types of pain requires that the regimen be individualized. In addition to choosing a suitable medication or medications, optimal doses must be selected. As with acetaminophen and ASA, all NSAIDs have ceiling (maximum) doses that, if exceeded, may precipitate toxicity without improving analgesia. Opioids, however, have no maximum dose. Generally, with opioids, the goal is to use the smallest dose that relieves the maximum amount of pain with the fewest side effects. Equally important for effective pharmacologic management of pain, the medication should be given:

• Before pain occurs or increases (e.g., before a painful event such as wound debridement) or
• Around the clock (ATC) or at regularly scheduled times if the pain is present most of the day

A rule of thumb is if the pain is present 12 or more hours out of 24 hours, ATC dosing should be considered. The analgesics should be routinely scheduled to prevent the recurrence of pain. Along with ATC dosing, supplementary analgesia (rescue dose) should also be available.

Nonpharmacologic techniques of pain management are once again gaining popularity. It is estimated that Americans spend $30.2 billion annually out-of-pocket on complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), the greatest proportion going to alternative methods of pain control (NCCIH, 2016). Health professionals need to know about these approaches in order to assist clients in making educated decisions. Analgesics are the mainstay of pain relief; however, even with the optimal use of analgesics, most pain is best treated with a combination of analgesic and non-analgesic approaches. For some types of mild pain, non-analgesic approaches alone may provide sufficient relief. Non-analgesic techniques are a supplement for but do not replace, pharmacologic interventions for moderate to severe pain.

Cognitive-behavioral interventions are methods that are thought to influence feelings, and if thought (and behaviors) can be changed, so can feelings and even sensations, such as pain. Cognitive-behavioral methods require the client’s active participation.

Relaxation is a state of relative freedom from both anxiety and skeletal muscle tension, a quieting or calming of the mind and muscles. Although relaxation is a learned technique, it can be achieved quickly in a motivated client.

Distraction from pain is the focusing of attention on stimuli other than the pain sensation. The stimuli focused upon can be auditory, visual, or tactile-kinesthetic (hearing, seeing, touching, and moving). By focusing attention and concentration on stimuli other than pain, pain is placed on the periphery of awareness. Distraction does not make the pain go away, nor does the effectiveness of the use of distraction indicate the absence of pain. Music and humor are an extremely effective means of distraction.

Imagery/visualization involves mentally creating a picture by using one’s imagination. This may be a focus on a close person, a place of enjoyment, a past event, or anything that is thought to bring pleasure. Since the mind is occupied, the pain is reduced in focus.

Massage is soothing and relaxing, both physically and mentally. Massage may decrease pain by relaxing muscle tension and increasing capillary circulation, thereby improving general circulation.

Vibration is a form of electric massage. When vibration is applied lightly, it may have a soothing effect similar to massage. Vibration applied with moderate pressure may relieve pain by causing numbness, paresthesia, and/or anesthesia of the area stimulated.

Heat/Cold – Heat reduces inflammation and promotes relaxation. It can be in the form of hot tub baths, heating pads, or heat packs. Cold is often more effective in relieving pain than heat. Applications of cold reduce muscle spasms secondary to underlying skeletal muscle spasm, joint pathology, or nerve root irritation. Methods of cold application include ice massage, ice bags, and gel packs. Alternating heat and cold may be more effective than the use of heat or cold alone.

Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation (TENS) provides low voltage electricity to the body via electrodes placed on the skin. TENS may help with acute or chronic pain. Electrical stimulation of sensory nerves helps block pain signals going to the brain.

Acupuncture is a neuro stimulatory technique that treats pain by the insertion of small, solid needles into the skin at varying depths. Various theories exist to offer an explanation of how acupuncture works.

With rare exceptions, less invasive analgesic approaches should precede invasive approaches. If drug therapy, cognitive-behavioral interventions, and/or non-invasive mechanical interventions do not alleviate pain, invasive therapies such as nerve blocks and neurosurgery may be useful.