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Restraint Use: Evidence Based Practice

1 Contact Hour
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This peer reviewed course is applicable for the following professions:
Advanced Practice Registered Nurse (APRN), Certified Nurse Midwife, Certified Nurse Practitioner, Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetist (CRNA), Clinical Nurse Specialist (CNS), Licensed Practical Nurse (LPN), Licensed Vocational Nurses (LVN), Midwife (MW), Nursing Student, Registered Nurse (RN), Registered Nurse Practitioner, Respiratory Therapist (RT)
This course will be updated or discontinued on or before Monday, July 3, 2023

Nationally Accredited

CEUFast, Inc. is accredited as a provider of nursing continuing professional development by the American Nurses Credentialing Center's Commission on Accreditation. ANCC Provider number #P0274.


Outcomes

The purpose of this course is to enable the participants to understand patient and institutional factors which may necessitate the use of restraints in clinical practice. In addition, it provides alternatives that healthcare providers can explore before using restraints. Lastly, it gives an overview of both physical and chemical restraints used in current practices and the limitations or complications associated with using those specific restraints.

Objectives

After the completion of this continuing education activity, the participant will be able to meet the following objectives:

  1. Identify people or groups of people who are at risk of harm when a patient becomes agitated.
  2. Name one nonpatient factor which may contribute to the use of restraints.
  3. Identify two underlying medical conditions which can induce agitation in patients.
  4. List three negative psychological consequences that can affect a patient who has been restrained.
CEUFast Inc. and the course planners for this educational activity do not have any relevant financial relationship(s) to disclose with ineligible companies whose primary business is producing, marketing, selling, re-selling, or distributing healthcare products used by or on patients.

Last Updated:
To earn of certificate of completion you have one of two options:
  1. Take test and pass with a score of at least 80%
  2. Reflect on practice impact by completing self-reflection, self-assessment and course evaluation.
    (NOTE: Some approval agencies and organizations require you to take a test and self reflection is NOT an option.)
Author:    Berthina Coleman (MD, BSN,RN)

Introduction

Scheepmans et al. define physical restraints as any actions or devices which healthcare workers or caregivers use to restrict a patient's freedom in any way ((Scheepmans et al., 2017). It is hard for healthcare providers to define the term restraints. Sometimes administering prescribed medications can be a form of chemical restraint.

The use of restraints relies on the clinical provider's judgment of the immediate risk the patient poses to themselves, other patients, the staff working on the unit, and visitors to the unit. Sometimes patients will be restrained when at risk for elopement (Marian, n.d.). There is an increased need for using restraints in hospital and home care settings (Scheepmans et al., 2017).

Certain conditions may make restraint use necessary when caring for patients for their safety: impaired cognition, increased dependency, history of falls or patients at increased risk of falling and impaired mobility. Nonpatient-related factors contributing to the use of restraints include staff skills and abilities, state legislation associated with restraint use, and staffing ratios for the hospital or facility.

Emergency room clinical providers must consider all possibilities when caring for agitated patients, including underlying psychiatric disease, alcohol abuse, drug intoxication or other life-threatening disorders, including metabolic disorders. Clinical providers must attempt to collect a detailed history from the patient and their family members. Physical examination should target identifying the patient's underlying cause of the agitation. Any underlying medical conditions should be addressed accordingly to obviate the need for unnecessary treatments. Examples of medical conditions that can induce agitation include hypoglycemia, drug or alcohol intoxication, and head trauma (Boyce et al., 2016).

Other methods of de-escalation should be tried when caring for agitated patients. Restraints should be the last resort. Using restraints when caring for patients in healthcare can negatively affect patients and clinical providers. Consequences can be physical, social and psychological.

Examples of physical consequences of restraint use include; pressure ulcers, incontinence and bruising. Social consequences include; isolation and feeling withdrawn. Psychological consequences include; depression, anger and fear. Restraint use can negatively affect family members by evoking feelings of anger, worry and guilt. Healthcare providers can also be negatively impacted by their feelings of guilt (Boyce et al., 2016).

Although restraint use can be life-saving when taking care of an altered, violent or psychotic patient, there can be adverse effects associated with the use of restraints. For example, mechanical restraints can inhibit further rapport with the patient. In addition, the application of restraints can be traumatic for the patients and cause them to be more withdrawn.

Joint Commission Requirements for Evaluation of Patient Who Are Restrained

State, hospital and facility policies usually govern how frequently restrained patients are evaluated. They elaborate on how often the patient's vital signs are evaluated. They also detail rules on skin integrity, toileting, range of motion, etc. The restraints can and should be removed as soon as the patient is calm and quiet. However, staff should continue to monitor the patient carefully for both the patient's safety and that of other patients and the staff (Boyce et al., 2016).

The Joint Commission has stringent requirements for using restraints in the healthcare setting. In the hospital setting, a timed and dated physician order with frequent rechecking is required for patients in restraints, including seclusion with a security watch (Boyce et al., 2016).

Once a patient is restrained, they require periodic and frequent evaluation to ensure that their safety is maintained while restrained. The joint commission has a list of required assessments for restrained patients. According to the Joint Commission, all restraint policies must require that the restraints be removed as soon as the patient is no longer a risk to themselves or others (Boyce et al., 2016).

Neurologic Status

Level of consciousness, degree of agitation, pupil examination, motor examination and sensory examination.

Vital Signs

Heart rate, blood pressure, temperature, oxygen saturation and respiratory rate.

Motor Examination

Focusing on motor strength in the upper and lower extremities.

Sensory Examination

Ensure that the patient has retained sensation in both the upper and lower body as well as all four extremities.

Vascular Evaluation

Capillary refill, distal pulses, as well as the vital signs as detailed above.

Other

Patient comfort, skin evaluation under and around the restraints, hydration, personal hygiene and toileting needs.

De-escalation Techniques

De-escalation techniques should be considered instead of restraint use. There are 3 phases of escalating violence as defined by Coburn and Mycyk: anxiety, defensiveness, and physical aggression as the last phase. These patterns of aggression are somewhat predictable, as such clinicians are encouraged to use that to their advantage in helping defuse potentially violent encounters with patients.

One simple and often underused technique is asking the patient, "how can we assist you?" This question allows the clinicians to engage the patient while displaying compassion. Often this is sufficient to put an agitated patient at ease. In addition, the staff should offer the patient food and drinks and help with toileting if appropriate. The goal is to treat the patient with dignity and empathy. If the patient continues to be agitated, untrained staff should immediately enlist the help of a trained staff member who can help defuse a potentially violent patient encounter. If the patient continues to be violent despite these measures, facility security should be called to help keep the patient, staff and other patients safe. When security does arrive, they should gather at a safe distance but within the patient's view. Sometimes a show of force is required to calm the patient, thereby making restraints unnecessary (Boyce et al., 2016).

Restraint Use in the Elderly

Safety in caring for the elderly sometimes necessitates using restraints rather than instituting policies that will help restore and maintain mobility and independence as reasonably possible. Overall, using restraints and restricting mobility in elderly people will result in loss of function in the long run (Dahlke et al., 2019).

Several factors contribute to deficiencies in safety practices when caring for elderly patients, including a lack of experience in caring for the elderly, mistaking functional decline in the elderly for a normal process of aging, and lack of access to resources.

Too often, concerns about safety in elderly people are handled by limiting their mobility. However, research has shown that safety concerns can be decreased by maintaining and restoring functional ability among the elderly. Nurses must have organizational support to assist them in developing practices that encourage nursing leaders to create practice systems geared towards preserving functional ability in the elderly. Leaders at the institutional level must also address organizational factors such as poor nursing staffing ratios, which may indirectly contribute to safety concerns in the healthcare setting. Hospitals and other institutions are encouraged to assess for potential safety threats and address them accordingly.

Types of Restraints:

Seclusion

Seclusion can be used in both inpatient units and specialized psychiatric units. Its use is well documented in the literature. It was frequently used in the 1980s but has declined significantly since then, given staff shortages, specifically nursing staff shortages. In addition, most hospitals now lack adequate space to provide seclusion to all patients who need it. Seclusion remains a very effective technique for aggressive patients when appropriate policies and accommodations are in place.

Note that seclusion can be combined with other forms of restraints, including physical or chemical restraints. Patients placed in seclusion must be reassessed as often as those placed in physical restraints (Kowalski et al., n.d.).

Limb Restraints

Physically restraining a patient's limbs is the most common form of physical restraint used in clinical practice. Limb restraints can be made from different materials, including leather and cotton. In general, restraints have to be comfortable, easy to apply, easy to remove and easy to clean. Of note, leather restraints are difficult to break or tear, but they are difficult to clean if they get soiled from bodily secretions. Sometimes hard leather restraints have difficult application and removal processes relative to soft form restraints. Furthermore, that can be problematic when the patient is crashing in an acute setting. Leather limbs are usually reserved for combative and violent patients in whom the need for secure restraints is considered more important and worth the time it takes to apply or remove them (Kowalski et al., n.d.).

Soft Restraints

Soft limb restraints are made from cotton or foam material and are intended to be used as single-use devices. They are less rigid than hard restraints and are thus easier to apply. Soft restraints are reserved for patients who are agitated but are less aggressive. Soft limb restraints are less secure than hard leather restraints (Kowalski et al., n.d.).

Fifth Point Restrains or Belts

These are used as an adjunct to the 4-point restraint. It restricts movement of the patient's torso, pelvis or thighs. Fifth-point restraints are reserved for patients who continue to be dangerous to themselves or others while in a 4-point restraint. It can also be used in patients whose behavior prohibits the medical staff from administering medically necessary care, including therapeutic interventions (Kowalski et al., n.d.).

Patients with a 5-point restraint are at increased risk of aspiration because they cannot turn to their sides if they start vomiting. Also, note that the 5-point restraint must be applied tight enough to prevent the risk of accidental suffocation in case the patient tries to slip under the restraint. These restraints usually require quick-release locks in an emergency (Kowalski et al., n.d.).

Jackets and Vests

These restraints are reserved for inpatients or patients in longer-term facilities. There are reports of associated deaths with the use of jackets or vests related to choking and suffocation (Kowalski et al., n.d.). In general, jackets and vests are rarely used in emergencies (Kowalski et al., n.d.).

Leg Restraints

Police and law enforcement characteristically use these to prevent running and kicking. It is typically used in the transportation of patients. Leg restraints are limited in the inpatient or emergency setting (Kowalski et al., n.d.).

Chemical Restraints

Examples of chemical restraints include medications in various classes, such as benzodiazepines and antipsychotics. Sedatives can be used as a restraint, especially if the patient is already scheduled to take that medication. Chemical restraints should be used cautiously because they can limit immediate psychiatric evaluation.

Benzodiazepines are commonly used as the first-line medication in the management of agitated patients. Examples of commonly used benzodiazepines include lorazepam and diazepam. In general, sedation with a single benzodiazepine tends to be associated with under sedation, repeat dosing or oversedation, requiring that the staff secure the airway (Korczak et al., 2016).

In the early 1990s, patient tranquilization protocols included antipsychotic agents such as haloperidol and chlorpromazine. Haldol and droperidol were linked to FDA black box warnings due to the associated side effect of the prolonged QT interval and the potential for causing arrhythmias (Korczak et al., 2016).

Opiates and barbiturates are less frequently used because of the risk of respiratory depression and apnea (Korczak et al., 2016). A meta-analysis published by Korczak et al. noted that patients sedated with benzodiazepines and antipsychotics were more likely to be sedated for longer than benzodiazepines alone. Antipsychotics or benzodiazepines use alone is also associated with undersedation and repeat dosing compared to a combination of antipsychotics and benzodiazepines. Repeated sedation increases the risk of oversedation (Korczak et al., 2016).

Indications for Restraint Use

Restraints prevent agitated or violent patients from harming themselves, other patients or staff members. Restraints should only be used as a last resort after de-escalation techniques have failed. Patients who are noted to be an immediate danger to themselves or others should be promptly restrained without delay.

Patients who are altered may need to be restrained to ensure they receive life-saving medical care — for example, intubated patients and sedated patients requiring life-saving treatment.

In addition, patients at risk for elopement may also be restrained in very specific circumstances.

Contraindications to restraint Use

Restraints should not be used when de-escalation techniques are adequate. Restraints should not be used on fractured limbs, patients with open wounds or skin infections. Also, restraints should be used cautiously in patients with impaired vascular circulation. Fifth-point restraints should be avoided in patients with ostomies, feeding tubes, pelvic fractures or multiple rib fractures. Finally, patients with severe pulmonary or cardiovascular disease may not tolerate the presence of a fifth-point restraint over their chest cavity. As such, they should be avoided.

Members of the restraint team include nurses, doctors, technicians, nurse's assistants, physician assistants, security officers or police officers. After restraining a patient, they should be immediately searched for weapons and other harmful substances.

How to apply Restraints

Restraints should be applied rapidly and safely by personnel who are trained in the application of restraints. When applying restraints on an actively violent patient, a team of 5 members is recommended. One team leader and one individual for each limb. Occasionally the presence of multiple team members will be enough to subdue the patient with the need to apply restraints. The team leader oversees directing the procedure of restraining the patient. The patient and family members must be provided with information about why the restraints are being applied. Also, they should always get clear instructions on the entire procedure to maintain patient and staff safety. When the patient is restrained, offer prescribed medications or call a clinical provider to prescribe medications (Korczak et al., 2016).

Complications Associated with Restraint Use

  • Increased agitation: Increased agitation can further inhibit rapport building with the patient, as discussed above (Boyce et al., 2016).
  • Local skin breakdown: Physically restricting the patient can prevent them from repositioning themselves, thereby increasing their risk of developing pressure ulcers.
  • Vascular compromise: If restraints are applied too tight, there is an increased risk of vascular compromise to a limb.
  • Respiratory restrictions: Patients with moderate to severe respiratory disease are at risk for respiratory compromise if they are physically or chemically restrained. For example, a patient with severe obstructive lung disease is at increased risk of respiratory failure if they are in a vest restraint or receive benzodiazepines as a form of chemical restraint.
  • Cardiovascular compromise: Patients with severe congestive heart failure who cannot lay flat may be at increased risk of cardiovascular and eventually respiratory compromise if physically restrained and forced to lay flat.

Case Study

You are an emergency department nurse assigned to care for a patient who presented with altered mental status and agitation after being arrested for a recent fistfight outside a bar. You receive a report from another nurse at shift change who informs you that the patient has been extremely disrespectful and agitated throughout his presentation today, necessitating that the emergency department physician places an order for physical restraints. The previous nurse could not obtain a coherent past medical history from the patient, given his altered mental state. Your physical examination of the patient reveals tremors; the patient appeared to have visual and auditory hallucinations and appears to slip into varying states of consciousness. In addition, you do not smell any alcohol or other intoxicants on his breath. Upon a quick review of the chat, you recognize that the patient has had 16 prior admissions associated with alcohol abuse or intoxication over the past two years. What are your next steps?

Discussion

The patient's past medical history and your findings during the physical exams should raise the possibility of alcohol withdrawal. Early alcohol withdrawal symptoms can present as early as 6 to 8 hours after their last drink and may include mild tremors, diaphoresis, palpitations and anxiety. Later symptoms of alcohol withdrawal include auditory, visual and tactile hallucinations, marked tremors and hyperactivity. The most feared complication of alcohol withdrawal is delirium tremens, associated with seizures, worsened agitation and hallucinations, autonomic hyperactivity, of sympathetic hyperactivity. As the nurse caring for the patient, you should inform the rest of the clinical team about your suspicions of alcohol withdrawal, and the patient should receive prompt treatment, which may eliminate the need for physical restraints.

Summary

As healthcare professionals, our responsibility and commitment to our patients is to advocate and care for them even when they cannot make appropriate decisions. At times ensuring a patient's safety and the safety of others will necessitate that they are placed in restraints. If that becomes necessary, nurses must provide compassionate care which remains compliant with state, federal and institutional recommendations on restraint use. At times, nurses will have to advocate to limit restraints use in patients who are inappropriately restraints or those who can be de-escalated with other techniques. As such, we need to remain informed about the indications, contraindications and alternatives to restraints.

Select one of the following methods to complete this course.

Take TestPass an exam testing your knowledge of the course material.
OR
Reflect on Practice ImpactDescribe how this course will impact your practice.   (No Test)

Implicit Bias Statement

CEUFast, Inc. is committed to furthering diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI). While reflecting on this course content, CEUFast, Inc. would like you to consider your individual perspective and question your own biases. Remember, implicit bias is a form of bias that impacts our practice as healthcare professionals. Implicit bias occurs when we have automatic prejudices, judgments, and/or a general attitude towards a person or a group of people based on associated stereotypes we have formed over time. These automatic thoughts occur without our conscious knowledge and without our intentional desire to discriminate. The concern with implicit bias is that this can impact our actions and decisions with our workplace leadership, colleagues, and even our patients. While it is our universal goal to treat everyone equally, our implicit biases can influence our interactions, assessments, communication, prioritization, and decision-making concerning patients, which can ultimately adversely impact health outcomes. It is important to keep this in mind in order to intentionally work to self-identify our own risk areas where our implicit biases might influence our behaviors. Together, we can cease perpetuating stereotypes and remind each other to remain mindful to help avoid reacting according to biases that are contrary to our conscious beliefs and values.

References

  • Boyce SH, Stevenson RJ, Cline DM. Prison Medicine. In: Tintinalli JE, Stapczynski J, Ma O, Yealy DM, Meckler GD, eds. Tintinalli's Emergency Medicine: A Comprehensive Study Guide. 8th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY; 2016.
  • Dahlke SA, Hunter KF, Negrin K. Nursing practice with hospitalized older people: Safety and harm. International Journal of Older People Nursing. 2019;14(1). doi:10.1111/opn.12220.
  • Kowalski JM. Physical and Chemical Restraint. Roberts and Hedges' Clinical Procedures in Emergency Medicine and Acute Care. 3rd ed.; 1481-1498.
  • Korczak V, Kirby A, Gunja N. Chemical agents for the sedation of agitated patients in the ED: a systematic review. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine. 2016;34(12):2426-2431. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2016.09.025.
  • Marian E. Suicide. In: Caterino B, Caterino JM, eds. Rosen's Emergency Medicine: Concepts and Clinical Practice. 3rd ed.; 1366-1373.
  • Scheepmans K, Casterlé BDD, Paquay L, Milisen K. Restraint use in older adults in-home care: A systematic review. International Journal of Nursing Studies. 2018;79:122-136. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2017.11.008.