Child Abuse

Studies have concluded that professionals who have contact with children often report only half of the incidents that may be abuse. Historically, this low report rate has been due to confusion or misunderstanding about the laws and procedures and a lack of knowledge or awareness of warning signs. It has also been shown that personal beliefs, values, and past experiences might be partially to blame for someone not coming forward.

Youth violence is a central public health issue. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that nearly 176,000 people between the ages of 15 and 29 are killed every year, making it the third leading cause of death for individuals in this age group (World Health Organization [WHO], 2023). Sexual violence is also shown to affect a significant proportion of youth as well, as evidenced by about 1 in 8 young people who report being sexually abused (WHO, 2023).

It is estimated that approximately 1 in 7 children suffer from abuse or neglect every year (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2022a). This is likely underestimated because numerous cases go unreported (CDC, 2022a). In 2020 alone, more than 1,750 children died due to abuse and neglect just in the United States (CDC, 2022a).

There is a large gap between the true prevalence of child abuse and the number of cases that are brought forward to Child Protective Services (CPS) (Baker et al., 2021). Every year, CPS investigates over 3 million children and their families nationally (Rizvi et al., 2023). Of this number of families, 20% produce evidence of maltreatment that is substantiated (Rizvi et al., 2023). While males and females seem to be equally affected, the highest risk of abuse and neglect is in children who are less than three years of age and those who are African American and Native American (Brown et al., 2023; Melmer & Gutovitz, 2023). Of the number of abused children, 75% suffer neglect, 15-20% suffer physical abuse, and 5-10% endure sexual abuse (Brown et al., 2023; Melmer & Gutovitz, 2023).

Mandated Reporters make the majority of child abuse reports due to their professional experience and Mandated Reporter training (Baker et al., 2021).

Each state defines child abuse and neglect within the civil and criminal context. Civil laws, or statutes, describe the circumstances and conditions that mandate reporters to report known or suspected cases of abuse. They also provide definitions necessary for juvenile/family courts to take custody of a child alleged to have been maltreated. Criminal statutes define the criminally punishable forms of maltreatment. All states require healthcare personnel, school personnel, daycare providers, and law enforcement personnel to report child abuse. Some states have a longer list of those designated as Mandated Reporters. Failure to report is a crime.

Child abuse and neglect are, at a minimum (Office of the Law Revision Council, 2024):

• Any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker that results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse, or exploitation
• An act or failure to act that presents an imminent risk of serious harm

For many families, having a child removed from the home and navigating a child welfare system can be traumatic events (New York State [NYS], 2022). Enduring abuse as a child is a traumatic event (Better Health Channel, 2022). Let’s discuss what trauma is and what it can look like.

Trauma is defined as a terrible event that threatens a person’s life or safety in a way that is too much for the mind to handle, initiates an emotional response, and often leaves the person powerless, in shock and denial (American Psychological Association [APA], n.d.; NYS, 2022).

Traumatic experiences include personally enduring or observing events including (NYS, 2022; Better Health Channel, 2022):

• Natural disasters (hurricanes, earthquakes, floods, etc.)
• Life-threatening illnesses
• Serious accidents
• Mass shootings
• Family violence
• Sexual abuse
• Emotional abuse
• Neglect
• Violence/crime in the community

Following a distressing event, it is normal to have strong reactions. These immediate reactions often fade as the mind and body can heal and recover with time (Better Health Channel, 2022). Depending on many things like the way a person reacts to trauma, what type of trauma it is, the severity of the traumatic event, the amount of support that is available following the event, other current stressors in the person’s life, the person’s level of resilience, and the person’s previously suffered traumatic experiences, all have a part in determining how a person will react to this new source of trauma (Better Health Channel, 2022).

Trauma can cause physical reactions including (NYS, 2022; Better Health Channel, 2022):

• Rapid heart rate
• Nausea
• Vomiting
• Dizziness
• Tense muscles
• Exhaustion
• Shallow breathing

Trauma can also cause emotional reactions that might include (NYS, 2022; Better Health Channel, 2022):

• Anxiety
• Fear
• Panic
• Detachment (feeling numb)
• Shock (trouble believing what has happened, feeling confused)

Mental reactions to trauma can involve (NYS, 2022; Better Health Channel, 2022):

• Confusion
• Disorientation
• Intrusive thoughts, specifically of the event(s)
• Reduced memory
• Decreased concentration

Now that we have reviewed what trauma is and can look like, we will now go over Adverse Childhood Experiences. As mentioned above, we know that enduring and/or witnessing physical, mental, emotional, and sexual abuse as a child can be traumatic (Better Health Channel, 2022). That trauma can be experienced long-term.

Adverse Childhood Experiences, or ACEs, are negative experiences or events that are potentially, and often, traumatic. These events occur from birth through about 17 years of age (CDC, 2023).

ACEs can include all the following situations as listed in the following image:

Image #1:
Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

This list, however, is not fully inclusive. Additional examples of ACEs include (CDC, 2023; Cleveland Clinic, 2023; Integrative Life Center, 2021):

• Experiencing violence or neglect
• Experiencing physical, sexual, or emotional abuse
• Witnessing violence occurring in the community
• Having a family member attempt or die by suicide
• Having a family member who has a mental health problem
• Experiencing divorce/custody battles
• Experiencing natural disasters
• Experiencing bullying

This list is quite similar to the one above, listing examples of traumatic experiences one might endure. As you might deduce, child maltreatment and abuse are also ACEs (NYS, 2022).

Trauma-informed care (TIC) is an approach for working with individuals and families that recognizes the impact and influence trauma may have on the individuals and families you serve (NYS, 2022). The main goal of a TIC approach is to avoid the inadvertent re-traumatization of individuals through your interactions with them (Tracy & Macias-Konstantopoulos, 2023; Gaillard-Kenney et al., 2020). TIC's goal is to understand that trauma may impact a person’s behavior (Tracy & Macias-Konstantopoulos, 2023; Gaillard-Kenney et al., 2020).

TIC will assist you in identifying when your own past trauma or life experiences may influence the way you evaluate an incident you encounter in your professional role (NYS, 2022).

This patient-centered approach focuses on the basic understanding that the trauma the patient has endured will greatly impact their life from now on (Tracy & Macias-Konstantopoulos, 2023). This approach aims to avoid any possible reinjury, focus on survivor strengths and overarching resilience, empower healing and recovery, and promote the creation of survivorship skills (Tracy & Macias-Konstantopoulos, 2023).

TIC can be applied to all patients as it simply involves the healthcare personnel's practice modification to be critically aware of the general traumatic events this specific patient has lived through (Tracy & Macias-Konstantopoulos, 2023; Gaillard-Kenney et al., 2020).

Protective factors are conditions that, when present in families and communities, can help increase the health and well-being of children and families, serving as buffers to prevent worse outcomes from actualizing (Positive Childhood Alliance, 2024). Protective factors offer support, resources, and coping strategies, allowing families to care for their children and “parent” effectively, even under stressful circumstances (Positive Childhood Alliance, 2024). Research has shown that protective factors can contribute to a lower incidence of child abuse and neglect (Positive Childhood Alliance, 2024).

The following are the five protective factors (Positive Childhood Alliance, 2024):

• Parental resilience

Resilience is the inner strength and adaptability that allows one to “bounce back” when things are not going well. Resilient parents are able to cope with the stresses of everyday life and situational crises as they arise.

• Social connections

Social connection features a social network of emotionally supportive family, friends, and neighbors who can assist parents with caring for a child. Parents who have reliable people they can count on to share advice, simply listen, or provide concrete support are parents who find it easier to care for their children and themselves.

• Parental knowledge of child development and parenting skills

Extensive research has been done on parenting skills and their effect on children. Effective parenting is strongly associated with healthy child development. Children require affection, but they also require respectful communication, listening, safe opportunities to promote independence, and consistent rules and expectations.

• Social and emotional competence of children

Research has also shown that babies who receive enough affection and nurturing from their parents have the best chances of healthy development. Young children who have a positive relationship with a caring, consistent adult have better grades, an increased ability to cope with stress, more positive interactions with peers, and overall healthier behavior and physical growth and development.

• Concrete support for parents

Parents who have the tools to provide their children with basic food, clothing, housing, and transportation are better equipped to provide childcare, healthcare, and mental health services. Families who have the needed tools and support are better able to ensure their children's safety and overall well-being. Sharing with parents the resources that are available in their community can be highly beneficial, especially for those who are struggling to work to prevent child maltreatment or even neglect.

Risk factors for child abuse are the specific characteristics that can increase the chances of child maltreatment. For example, children younger than four years of age and those with special needs, were born prematurely, or have a disability are risk factors that increase a child’s chance of being maltreated or abused (CDC, 2022b; National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children [NSPCC], 2024).

The following are the caregiver-related risk factors for child maltreatment and abuse (CDC, 2022b; CDC, 2022c):

• Use of drugs or alcohol excessively
• History of mental health conditions
• Previous exposure to abuse or neglect as children themselves
• Low socioeconomic status (lower income, lower levels of education)
• High levels of stress
• Not the biological child’s parent
• Caring for children with special needs that they do not understand
• Self or family members in jail/prison
• Violence within the family
• High level of conflict within the household
• Isolated from extended family, friends, and/or neighbors

Some community-related risk factors can increase the likelihood of child maltreatment and abuse. These environmental risk factors can include areas of high rates of violence and crime, limited educational and economic opportunities, high rates of unemployment, simple access to alcohol and drugs, unstable housing, quick neighborhood resident turnover, and frequent concerns around food security (CDC, 2022b).

Protective factors are the specific characteristics that have the possibility of lowering the chances of children being neglected or abused (CDC, 2022b).

Caregivers who nurture positive relationships with children, utilize parenting skills, provide emotional support, have a college degree or higher with steady employment, and are capable of meeting a child’s basic needs of food, security, shelter, healthcare, and education are known to be those who are less likely to harm the children in their care (CDC, 2022b). Families who are active and present, enforce rules in the home, monitor their children for their safety, and have a supportive environment of friends and family who can offer guidance and assistance in caring for the children are also less at risk for engaging in child abuse and maltreatment (CDC, 2022b).

Just as communities can have a negative impact on the chances of child abuse and maltreatment, they can also have a protective effect (CDC, 2022b). The following includes the factors of communities that help to decrease the likelihood of child abuse and maltreatment (CDC, 2022b; CDC, 2022c):

• Access to safe housing
• Access to high-quality schooling and childcare
• Engaging after-school activities available
• Access to good medical care
• Access to mental health services
• Economic/financial help resources
• Workplaces that prioritize families and their needs

Indicators of abuse warn the Mandated Reporter to pay more attention to a particular situation. Sometimes, there are no visible indicators present even though the child is being abused.

Types of indicators of abuse or maltreatment can include (State University of New York [SUNY], 2013):

1. Physical indicators
2. Child behavioral indicators
3. Caregiver behavioral indicators 

Some Mandated Reporters see a child only once or very infrequently, whereas others see them more often. In looking for reasonable cause, you must consider what you know about the child’s normal behavior. No two children will respond the same way to the same situation.

Abuse should never be assumed as your first and last thought. Carefully consider your previous experiences with this child and whether there is a difference between those experiences and what you currently see (NYS, 2022). It is important to make an objective evaluation, free from any bias (NYS, 2022).

Each indicator, as listed above, needs to be considered in relation to the child’s developmental age and circumstances (NYS, 2022). These indicators must be considered in relation to the child’s condition. They should be considered in the overall context of the child’s physical appearance and behavior (NYS, 2022). Sometimes, a single indicator is self-evident or points to abuse or maltreatment/neglect. Often, several indicators must be pulled together, or clusters of indicators must be used to develop a reasonable cause (SUNY, 2013). It is important to remember NOT to view indicators in isolation(NYS, 2022).

Mandated Reporters may interact with children in a virtual setting (University of South Carolina, 2020; NYS, 2022). While interacting with children in your professional role, your responsibilities as a Mandated Reporter are the same in a virtual environment (University of South Carolina, 2020; NYS, 2022).

When assessing a child’s safety virtually, please consider all of the following (University of South Carolina, 2020; NYS, 2022):

• Does the child’s behavior seem different when someone else enters the room?
• Does the child appear anxious or depressed?
• Are there any signs the child is trying to say something to you without someone else noticing?
• Has the child made any worrisome comments to you, siblings, or their friends?
• While trying to observe the child’s body, even if you can only see the child’s face, neck, shoulders, and chest, is there anything that seems questionable, such as bruises, welts, or burns?

When dealing with child abuse or maltreatment, you are not to investigate or interrogate. You are responsible for assessing for reasonable cause to suspect and making the necessary report immediately.

Occasionally, you learn of possible abuse or maltreatment not by what you see but by what a child says to you.

When a child discloses, consider the following suggestions of what to do when talking with children.

It is important to (SUNY, 2013):

• Find a private place
• Remain calm
• Be honest, open, up-front, supportive
• Be an advocate
• Listen to the child
• Report the situation immediately

When talking with a child, stress that the situation and the behaviors are not their fault.

What about what not to do? It is important not to overreact. It is natural for us as human beings to potentially act immediately when something like this is disclosed to us. It is important that we listen, remain mindful, and do not react. We must also not make any quick judgments. We should never make any promises to the child. As mentioned above, it is not our duty to interrogate and investigate. Make sure not to do this.

Each state has specific agencies to receive and investigate reports of suspected child abuse and neglect. This is usually done by child protective services (CPS) within a Department of Social Services, Department of Human Resources, or Division of Family and Children Services. A list of state-specific contact information can be found at the end of this course.

In some states, police departments also may receive reports of child abuse or neglect. If you do not know whom to call, you can call or text Childhelp USA’s National Child Abuse Hotline at 1-800-4-A-CHILD (1-800-422-4453; TDD 1-800-2-A-CHILD). This Hotline is available 24 hours a day, seven days a week. They can tell you where to file your report and even help you make it.

Their website is also set up to allow for live chatting.

Child abuse victims frequently have contact with healthcare professionals, but only injuries are often treated. Because there is a lack of training on what to look for and how to ask about abuse, healthcare professionals can often fail to identify victims. Opportunities for intervention can be repeatedly missed, and victims continue to suffer the adverse health consequences of physical, emotional, and sexual abuse.

Healthcare professionals are often the first to observe abuse and neglect, and their careful and detail-oriented observations are crucial in substantiating that abuse has occurred. They can help by (Golonka et al., 2024; Bragança-Souza et al., 2023; Chen et al., 2022):

• Conducting thorough medical and social histories of patients and their families
• Taking notice of family unit risk factors of concern
• Documenting abuse thoroughly in the medical record with specifics
• Utilizing child abuse-specific screening tools within their organization and electronic medical records (EMRs)
• Protecting evidence
• Providing medical advice, referrals, and safety planning
• Showing empathy and compassion
• Identifying the somatic signs and symptoms of abuse
• Evaluating the plausibility of explanations given for common injuries and conditions
• Providing expert testimony
• Assessing the cognitive status and health factors that affect it
• Treating injuries or health problems that result from abuse
• Performing abuse screenings
• Encouraging clinics, hospitals, health maintenance organizations, or other medical providers to develop or adopt protocols for screening and responding to abuse
• Providing referrals to legal and social services
• Learning more about child abuse and neglect
• Reporting suspected cases of child abuse to Children's Protective Services

As we have discussed, every state has its requirements for how to report and who is responsible for reporting suspected child abuse. In most cases and as briefly alluded to in the course text so far, Mandated Reporters are expected to have a “reasonable cause to suspect” that a child is being abused or neglected, necessitating the filing of a report (Mandated Reporter, 2024).

But what exactly does that mean?

The term “reasonable” has its’ own legal implications. In general, “reasonable” means that you have a realistic suspicion. It means someone else with your training, professional experience, and education would have the same suspicion (Krase, n.d.). It is important to note that just a “gut feeling” is not considered enough. A “gut feeling” must also be accompanied by objective observations (Mandated Reporter, 2024).

You would have reasonable cause to be suspicious of child abuse or maltreatment, based on what you have observed or been told, combined with your training and experience, if you feel that harm or imminent danger of harm to the child could result from an act or omission by the person legally responsible for the child.

Crimes committed against the child should be reported directly to law enforcement. If the child is in imminent danger, contact law enforcement immediately by calling 9-1-1. Imminent danger is when the child is placed at immediate or substantial risk of harm.

While there is general overlap and similarity, each state has its own rules for who Mandated Reporters are, how child abuse terminology is defined, what and what is not considered illegal, who/what to report to, and how to report a suspected case of child abuse or neglect. It is important that you know your own state’s requirements for these things and circumstances.

This link provides the child abuse laws state-by-state for your review

This link provides more information regarding mandatory reporting requirements for the majority of the states in the U.S.

Preventing child abuse and neglect requires a multisystem approach. Just as we discussed earlier, because ACEs, which include child abuse and neglect, can have lifelong negative effects on the health and overall well-being of a child or adolescent, it is important that we do what we can to prevent them (CDC, 2022b).

According to the American Psychological Association (APA), much research is still being done to determine the best steps in preventing child abuse. Primary prevention programs are designed to teach the public and policymakers about child abuse and the scope of problems involved to raise awareness in general (APA, 2009). Secondary prevention is aimed at focusing on populations with specific risk factors for child abuse and maltreatment (APA, 2009). Tertiary prevention is the intervention within families where abuse has occurred to try to prevent reoccurrence and lessen the impact of what has already occurred (APA, 2009).

As mentioned earlier, much of what was discussed can help to prevent ACEs from working to prevent child abuse and neglect. In addition to those points, specifically regarding child abuse and neglect, the WHO emphasizes the importance of the following preventative interventions (WHO, 2022):

• Implementation and enforcement of laws to protect children and punish those who harm them
• Education and life skills training for families to teach children how to advocate for themselves and to build resilience
• Caregiver support services to help train families how to provide nurturing, non-violent parenting (especially for those who experienced abuse as a child themselves; the cycle can be broken!)
• Support services to capture early cases of child abuse and intervene
• “Norms” training for caregivers to teach about the social and gender norms that relate to raising children, gender equality, and the role of the modern-day father

Children require loving and nurturing environments to grow appropriately. They need to know that they matter and that their thoughts and feelings matter. Children need to be able to develop trust, self-esteem, and self-worth to become thriving members of society (Mayo Clinic Staff, 2022). We know that the earlier such interventions occur in the lives of children, the better off the child will be, and the more significant the benefits to the child’s growth and development and society in general will be (WHO, 2022).

Consider these questions when evaluating the following case studies (SUNY, 2013):

1. What indicators are present?
2. Is there reasonable cause to suspect abuse or maltreatment/neglect?
3. If so, who is responsible for abuse or maltreatment/neglect?
4. What are your next steps?

The correct answers follow the case studies and allow you to reflect on your answer choices.

When confronted with an incident, use these same questions to help decide if there is reasonable cause to suspect.

Your “gut” feeling serves as a warning and warrants further examination of the situation.

Child abuse and maltreatment are, unfortunately, quite common. With an improved understanding of what to look out for, Mandated Reporters have a unique position, due to their positions in their work roles, to file a report when they suspect a child or children are being mistreated or abused. We can all identify children in need and speak up on their behalf to protect them!

Alabama Department of Human Resources
50 North Ripley Street
Montgomery, Alabama 36130
Phone: (334) 242-1425
Email: fsd@dhr.alabama.gov
 

Alaska Department of Family and Community Services
Phone: (907) 465-3207
Email: ReportChildAbuse@alaska.gov
 

Arizona Department of Child Safety
P.O. Box 6030
Site Code CH010-23A
Phoenix, Arizona 85005-6030
Phone: (602) 255-2500
 

Arkansas Department of Human Services
Donaghey Plaza, PO Box 1437
Little Rock, Arkansas 72203
Phone: (501) 683-2735
 

California Department of Social Services
744 P Street
Sacramento, California 95814
Phone: (916) 651-8848
Email: piar@dss.ca.gov
 

California Ombudsman for Foster Care
744 P Street
Sacramento, California 95814
Phone: 1(877) 846-1602
Email: fosteryouthhelp@dss.ca.gov
 

Colorado Department of Human Services
1575 Sherman Street
Denver, Colorado 80203
Phone: (303) 866-5700
Fax: (303) 866-5563
Email: cdhs_clientservices@state.co.us
 

Connecticut Department of Children & Families
505 Hudson Street
Hartford, Connecticut 06106
Phone: (860) 550-6300
Email: Commissioner.dcf@ct.gov
 

District of Columbia Child and Family Services Agency Youth Ombudsman
200 I Street, SE
Washington, District of Columbia 20003
Phone: (202) 442-6100
Fax: (202) 727-6505
Email: cfsa@dc.gov
 

Florida Department of Children and Families
2415 North Monroe Street
Suite 400
Tallahassee, FL 32303-4190
Phone: (850) 487-1111
 

Georgia's Office of Child Advocate
2 Capitol Square SW
Atlanta, Georgia 30334
Phone: (404) 656-4200
Email: tboga@oca.ga.gov
 

Hawaii Office of the Ombudsman
465 South King Street, 4th Floor
Honolulu, Hawaii 96813
Phone: (808) 587-0770
Fax: (808) 587-0773
Email: complaints@ombudsman.hawaii.gov
 

Illinois Advocacy Office for Children and Families
406 East Monroe Street
Springfield, Illinois 62701
Phone: (217) 524-2029
Toll-Free: (800) 232-3798
 

Indiana Department of Child Services (DCS) Ombudsman Bureau
402 W. Washington Street
Indianapolis, Indiana 46204
Phone: (260) 458-6100
Email: DCSOmbudsman@idoa.in.gov
 

Iowa Office of Citizens' Aide Ombudsman
Ola Babcock Miller Building
1112 East Grand
Des Moines, Iowa 50319
Phone: (515) 281-3592
Email: ombudsman@legis.iowa.gov
 

Kansas Department for Children and Families
555 S Kansas Avenue
Topeka, Kansas 66603
Phone: (785) 296-3271
 

Kentucky Cabinet for Health and Family Services
275 East Main Street, 3E-A
Frankfort, Kentucky 40621
Phone: (502) 564-5497
Email: CHFS.Listens@ky.gov
 

Louisiana Department of Children & Family Services
627 North Fourth Street
Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70802
Phone: (225) 342-2297
Fax: (225) 342-2268
Email: LAHelpU.dcfs@la.gov
 

Maine Ombudsman Program
Maine Child Welfare Services Ombudsman
Phone: (207) 213-4773
Toll-Free: (866) 621-0758
Email: ombudsman@cwombudsman.com
 

Maryland Department of Human Resources
311 West Saratoga Street
Baltimore, Maryland 21201-3521
Toll-Free: (800) 332-6347
Email: dhr-help@dhr.state.md.us
 

Massachusetts Department of Children and Families Ombudsman
DCF Central Office
600 Washington Street, 6th Floor
Boston, Massachusetts 02211
Phone: (617) 748-2000
 

Michigan Office of the Child Advocate (OCA)
P.O. Box 30026
Lansing, Michigan 48909
Phone: (517) 241-0400
Fax: (517) 335-4471
 

Minnesota - The Office of the Ombudsperson for Families
1450 Energy Drive
Suite 106
St. Paul, Minnesota 55108
Phone: (651) 539-1257
Toll-Free: 1-888-234-4939
Fax: (651) 643-2539
Email: obff.info@state.mn.us
 

Mississippi Department of Human Services
200 South Lamar Street
Jackson, Mississippi 39201
Phone: (601) 359-4500
 

Missouri Office of Child Advocate
PO Box 809
Jefferson City, Missouri 65102
Toll-Free: (866) 457-2302
Fax: (573) 522-8683
Email: oca@oca.mo.gov
 

Montana Child and Family Ombudsman
PO Box 201417
Helena, Montana 59620
Phone: 1-844-252-4453
Email: DOJOMBUDSMAN@mt.gov
 

Nebraska Public Counsel (Ombudsman's Office)
State Capitol
PO Box 94604
Room 807, State Capitol
Lincoln, Nebraska 68509-4604
Phone: (402) 471-2035
Email: ombud@leg.ne.gov
 

Nevada Division of Child and Family Services
Systems Advocate
4126 Technology Way, 3rd Floor
Carson City, Nevada 89706
Phone: (775) 684-4453
Email: systems.advocate@dcfs.nv.gov
 

New Hampshire Department of Health and Human Services
Office of the Ombudsman
129 Pleasant Street
Concord, New Hampshire 03301-3857
Phone: (603) 271-9000
Toll-Free: (800) 852-3345
 

New Jersey Department of Children and Families
PO Box 729, 3rd Floor
Trenton, New Jersey 08625-0729
Phone: 1(855) 463-6323
Email: askDCF@dcf.state.nj.us
 

New Mexico Children, Youth & Families
PO Drawer 5160
P.E.R.A. Room 254
Santa Fe, New Mexico 87502
Phone: (505) 827-8400
Fax: (505) 827-8480
Email: harry.montoya@state.nm.us
 

New York State Office of Children and Families
Capital View Office Park
52 Washington Street
Rensselaer, New York 12144-2834
Phone: 518-473-7793
Email: info@ocfs.ny.gov
 

North Dakota Department of Human Services
600 E Boulevard Avenue, Dept. 325
Bismarck, North Dakota 58505-0250
Phone: (701) 328-2310
Email: dhslau@nd.gov
 

Ohio Department of Job and Family Services
Office of Constituent Affairs
30 East Broad Street
32nd Floor
Columbus, Ohio 43215-0423
Phone: (614) 466-9280
Email: legislation@jfs.ohio.gov
 

Oklahoma Department of Human Services
2400 N Lincoln Boulevard
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73105
Phone: (405) 522-5050
 

Oregon Governor's Advocacy/Ombudsman Office
500 Summer St, NE
4th Floor GAO
Salem, Oregon 97301
Phone: (503) 945-6904
Toll-Free: (800) 442-5238
Email: gao.info@odhs.oregon.gov
 

Pennsylvania Department of Human Services
625 Forester Street
Harrisburg, Pennsylvania 17120
Phone: (800) 692-7462
 

Rhode Island Office of the Child Advocate
6 Cherrydale Court, Cottage 43
Cranston, Rhode Island 02920
Phone: (401) 462-4300
Fax: (401) 462-4305
 

South Carolina State Office of Children's Affairs
Department of Children’s Advocacy
1205 Pendleton Street, Suite 471A
Columbia, South Carolina 29201
Phone: (803) 734-3176
 

South Dakota Department of Social Services
700 Governor's Drive
Pierre, South Dakota 57501
Phone: (605) 773-3165
Email: DSSConstituentLiaison@state.sd.us
 

Tennessee Commission on Children and Youth
Andrew Johnson Tower, 9th Floor
502 Deaderick Street
Nashville, Tennessee 37243-0800
Phone: (615) 741-2633
Email: tccy.info@tn.gov
 

Texas Department of Family and Protective Services
4900 North Lamar Boulevard
Austin, Texas 78751
Phone: (512) 929-6900
Email: oca@dfps.state.tx.us
 

Utah Department of Human Services
195 North 1950 West
Salt Lake City, Utah 84116
Phone: (833) 353-3447
 

Vermont Department for Children and Families
280 State Drive, HC 1 North
Waterbury, Vermont 05671-1080
Phone: (802) 871-3385
 

Virginia Department of Social Services
5600 Cox Road
Glen Allen, Virginia 23060
Phone: (800) 468-8894
Email: citizen.services@dss.virginia.gov
 

Washington State Office of the Family & Children's Ombuds
6840 Fort Dent Way, Suite 125
Mail Stop TT-99
Tukwila, Washington 98188
Phone: (206) 439-3870
Fax: (206) 439-3877
 

West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources
Office of Client Services
350 Capital Street - Room 513
Charleston, West Virginia 25301
Phone: (304) 558-4194
Email: osaclientservices@wv.gov
 

Wisconsin Department of Children and Families
201 West Washington Avenue, Second Floor
PO Box 8916
Madison, Wisconsin 53703-8916
Phone: (608) 422-7000
Fax: (608) 422-7163
Email: dcfweb@wisconsin.gov
 

Wyoming Department of Family Services
Hathaway Building - 2300 Capitol Avenue, 3rd Floor
Cheyenne, Wyoming 82002
Phone: (800) 457-3659
Email: dfs-directorsoffice@wyo.gov 

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